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Insulin Cross-Reactivity and Glucose Management IGF-1 shares approximately 50% structural homology with insulin and binds the insulin receptor (IR) with roughly 100-fold lower affinity than insulin itself [3]

Dickerson F, Stallings C, Origoni A, Boronow J, Yolken R

Peptides are an incredibly broad category of substances

doi: 10.3389/fnins.2025.1673315 Received 29 July 2025 Revised 22 November 2025 Accepted 03 December 2025 Published 12 January 2026 Volume 19 - 2025 Edited by Geert Bultynck, KU Leuven, Belgium Reviewed by Manish Shukla, Penn State Milton S

The cumulative impact of these cellular activities results in cell death and necrosis of the intestinal tissues